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• Conexant Scsi & Raid Devices Drivers
• Conexant SCSI & RAID Devices Driver

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iSCSI stands for Internet Small Computer Systems Interface. iSCSI is a transport layer protocol that works on top of the Transport Control Protocol (TCP). It enables block-level SCSI data transport between the iSCSI initiator and the storage target over TCP/IP networks. iSCSI supports encrypting the network packets, and decrypts upon arrival at the target.

Conexant Scsi & Raid Devices Drivers

SCSI is a block-based set of commands that connects computing devices to networked storage, including spinning up storage media and data reads/writes.

The protocol uses initiators to send SCSI commands to storage device targets on remote servers. Storage targets may be SAN, NAS, tape, general-purpose servers – both SSD and HDD – LUNs, or others. The protocol allows admins to better utilize shared storage by allowing hosts to store data to remote networked storage, and virtualizes remote storage for applications that require direct attached storage.

The iSCSI protocol plays an important play in many different network configurations.

iSCSI Components

iSCSI Initiator, HBA, or iSOE

These technologies package SCSI commands into network packets and direct them to the storage target. The software-based iSCSI initiator is the least expensive of the options, and is often included in the operating system (OS).

Host-based adapters (HBA) is a hardware device. HBAs are more expensive than software, but higher performance with more functionality. A hardware alternative is to the full HBA is an iSOE card with an iSCSI offload engine. The engine offloads the initiator operations from the host processor, which frees up CPU cycles on the host servers.

iSCSI Target

iSCSI transports packets across TCP/IP networks. The iSCSI target is the remote storage, which appears to the host system as a local drive. The iSCSI protocol links the hosts and storage over IP networks: LAN, WAN, and Internet.

When the packets arrive at the iSCSI target, the protocol disassembles the packets to present SCSI commands to the operating system. If iSCSI has encrypted the network packet, it decrypts the packet at this stage.

iSCSI Performance

iSCSI performance is highly dependent on underlying technologies like 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 GbE) and bridging technology in the data center.

• 10 GbE. Ethernet network connection speed has the single largest impact on iSCSI performance. Although smaller networks may run iSCSI protocols over 1 GbE networks, the slower speed is insufficient for mid-sized or enterprise data centers. Admins may increase some performance on a sub-10 GbE network by adding multiple NICs, but a single switch will not boost speed for multiple iSCSI ports. 10 GbE is the recommended speed for an enterprise storage environment. Because it is a wider pipe, there is little call for multiple NICs. Instead, adding server-class network adapters will accelerate iSCSI packets traveling the 10 GbE network.

• Data center bridging. Bridgingis a set of Ethernet extensions that protect SCSI traffic against data loss. This allows iSCSI to better compete with highly reliable Fiber Channel, which has run over lossless connections for years.

• Multipathing. Multipathing I/O speeds up iSCSI network packets, and most operating systems support the technology. Typical iSCSI multipathing features assign multiple addresses to a single iSCSI session, which accelerates data transport.

• Jumbo frames. These 9000-byte frames relieve congestion on slower Ethernet networks that are not using 10 GbE, which gives a performance boost of about 10-20 percent. Jumbo frames will not give much of a performance boost in 10 GbE, if any.

iSCSI and Fibre Channel: Two Main Approaches to Storage Data Transmission

iSCSI and Fibre Channel (FC) are leading methods of transmitting data to remote storage. In general, FC is a high-performance but expensive storage network that requires specialized admin skill sets. iSCSI is less expensive and simpler to deploy and manage, but has higher latency.

There are additional protocols that merge the two. The best-known include Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP), a tunneling protocol for SAN-to-SAN replication that wraps the FC frame onto the TCP stream; and Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) that enables FC SANs to transport data packets over Ethernet networks.

When to Implement iSCSI Over FC

• When cost is an issue. iSCSI saves on costs over FC because it connects application servers to shared storage without expensive hardware or cabling.

Conexant SCSI & RAID Devices Driver

• When you want to connect many hosts to a single storage target. Oversubscription ratio is the number of hosts that FC or iSCSI will support on a single target device. FC ratios generally support 4:1 up to 20:1, but iSCSI can support many more hosts to a single storage target.

• When talent is a concern. FC SANs are expensive to deploy and maintain, and require admins with specialized skillsets. An iSCSI SAN runs on existing Ethernet networks, and generalist IT can learn how to install and run them.

iSCSI and Storage Targets

Typical targets include SAN, NAS, tape, and LUNs.

• SAN presents shared virtual storage pools to multiple servers. For an Ethernet SAN, host servers use iSCSI to transport block-based data to the SAN.

• NAS supports iSCSI targets. For example, in Windows environments the OS acts as an initiator, so an iSCSI share on a NAS displays as a local drive.

• Tape. Many tape vendors enable iSCSI support on their tape drives, which allows iSCSI initiators to use the tape drive as its storage target.

• LUN. A logical unit number uniquely identifies a collection of physical or virtual storage devices. The iSCSI initiator maps to specific iSCSI LUNs as its target. Upon receiving the SCSI network packet, the target serves up its LUNs as available storage.

iSCSI Limitations

Deploying iSCSI is not particularly difficult, especially with software-defined protocols. But configuring the iSCSI initiator and target takes extra steps, and 10 GbE is a necessity for high performance. Additional best practices for supporting traffic loads include running iSCSI traffic on a separate physical network or distinct virtual LAN.

Security is another concern, since iSCSI is vulnerable to packet sniffing. Packet sniffing is a cyberattack where an attacker’s malware or device captures packets moving across a vulnerable network. Admins can take security measures to prevent this, but many storage or generalist admins in smaller companies skip extra security measures in order to simplify iSCSI management.

This is rarely a good plan, since defenses against packet sniffing are easily available. The primary defenses against this attack type is Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) and Internet Protocol Security (IPsec), both specific to iSCSI.

CHAP works by acknowledging a link between the initiator and target. Before the data transmits, CHAP sends a challenge message to the connection requestor. The requestor sends back a value derived from a hash function for the server to authenticate. If the hash values match, the link activates. If it does not, CHAP terminates the connection.

For iSCSI packets running across an Internet network, the IPsec protocol authenticates and encrypts data packets sent over an Internet network. Its primary use is in IPsec mutually authenticates between agents (host-to-host, network-to-network, or network-to-host). The protocol also negotiates encryption and decryption during the session, and supports data-origin and network-level peer authentication, and data integrity validation. Since IPsec is complex to deploy and configure, its primary usage is in VPNs (virtual private networks) transporting highly sensitive data.

Additional iSCSI security measures include using access control lists (ACLs) to control user data access and secure management consoles.

Intel High Definition Audio (IHDA) (also called HD Audio or development codename Azalia) is a specification for the audio sub-system of personal computers. It was released by Intel in 2004 as successor to its AC'97 PC audio standard.^[1]

Features[edit]

The Intel High Definition Audio specification includes the following features:^[2]

• Up to 15 input and 15 output streams
• Up to 16 PCM audio channels per stream
• Sample resolutions of 8–32 bits
• Sample rates of 6–192 kHz
• Support for audio codecs (e.g., ADC, DAC), modem codecs, and vendor-defined codecs
• Discoverable codec architecture
• Fine-grained codec power-control
• Audio jack detection, sensing, and retasking

However, as of 2008, most audio hardware manufacturers did not implement the full specification, especially 32-bit sampling resolution.^{[citation needed]} Motherboards typically do not have any more than eight onboard output channels (7.1 surround sound) and four input channels (back and front panel microphone inputs, and a back-panel stereo line-in). Users requiring more audio I/Os will typically opt for a sound card or an external audio interface, as these devices also provide additional features that are more oriented towards professional audio applications.

Operating system support[edit]

MicrosoftWindows XP SP3 and later Windows versions^[3] include a Universal Audio Architecture (UAA) class driver which supports audio devices built to the HD Audio specification. There are UAA drivers for Windows 2000 and Windows XP SP2 as well. macOS has full support with its AppleHDA driver. Linux also supports HD Audio controllers, as do the OpenSolaris,^[4]FreeBSD,^[5]NetBSD and OpenBSD^[6] operating systems. However, it was first introduced in Windows XP x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003 x64 Edition with Service Pack 1. It had problems in some computers that have HD Audio in the motherboard chipset. This was fixed with Service Pack 2 for Windows Server 2003 x64 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition.

Host controller[edit]

Like AC'97, HD Audio is a specification that defines the architecture, link frame format, and programming interfaces used by the controller on the PCI bus and by the codec on the other side of the link. Implementations of the host controller are available from at least Intel, Nvidia, and AMD.^[7] Codecs which can be used with such controllers are available from many companies, including Realtek,^[8]Conexant (including products of acquired Analog Devices' SoundMAX division),^[9] Tempo Semiconductor, VIA, Wolfson Microelectronics, and formerly C-Media. Realtek currently supplies most of HD Audio codec chips used on motherboards and standalone cards.

Nearly all chipsets for x86 processors and x86 SoCs, designed for consumer and embedded PC markets, introduced since 2005, implements integrated HD Audio controller. The most recent exemption in consumer chipset market is AMD TRX40 (launched 2019), which, for first time since the early 2000s, does not itself integrate any kind of audio controller. Instead, motherboard manufacturers places USB audio controller chip, in pair with usual HD Audio codec chip, to provide onboard audio functionality. The Realtek ALC4050H controller and ALC1220 codec is the most common pair used in sTRX4 motherboards.

Front panel connector[edit]

Computer motherboards often provide a connector to bring microphone and headphone signals to the computer's front panel. Intel provides a specification for that header, but the signal assignments are different for AC'97 and HD Audio headers.^[10]

The pin assignments for the AC'97 and HD Audio connectors are:^[10]

The HDA 3.5 mm subminiature audio connectors differ from connectors used in the AC'97 specification and general audio equipment. A regular 3.5 mm audio jack (which is used in AC'97) typically has 5 pins: one pin for ground, two pins for stereo signal and two pins for return signal.^[11] When there is no plug in the jack, the two stereo signals are connected to their return pins. When a plug is inserted, the stereo signals contact the respective channels on the plug and are disconnected from the jack's return pins. The HDA 3.5 mm jack does not have the two return audio signals; instead it has an isolated switch that senses the presence of a plug in the jack.^[12]

In the AC'97 design, the audio output is always sent to the jack. If the headphones are not plugged in, the jack directs the audio to the return pins that are connected to the speakers. When a headphone is plugged into the front panel jack, the audio signal goes to the headphones; the return pins are disconnected, so no audio signal goes to the speakers. For the microphone jack, the return signal pins ground the microphone input when the microphone is not plugged in. Many motherboards with AC'97 audio need two jumpers to short the pins in case no front panel audio module is connected, so audio passes to the speakers.^[13]

In the HDA design, when the plug is not inserted, the codec sends the audio directly to the speakers (the audio does not go out to the front panel and then loop back to the speakers). When the plug is inserted, the isolated switch inside the jack informs the motherboard, and the codec sends audio to the headphones. A similar isolated switch is used to detect when a microphone has been plugged in.

HD Audio can sense the presence of an audio dongle.^[14] A 10 kΩ pull-up resistor is attached to pin 4 (PRESENCE#). When the HDA dongle is plugged in, it pulls pin 4 to ground with a 1 kΩ resistor. The motherboard can determine if the dongle is plugged in by examining the logic level on pin 4. If the motherboard does not detect the presence of an HDA dongle, then it should ignore SENSE1_RETURN (pin 6) and SENSE2_RETURN (pin 10) signals. In AC'97, pins 2 and 4 are audio ground, but pin 4 is often disconnected. Consequently, an HDA motherboard would not detect the presence of an AC'97 dongle with a disconnected pin 4.

Intel warns that HDA dongles should be used with HDA motherboards:^[15]

It is strongly recommended that motherboard designers only use Intel HD Audio analog front panel dongles with the Intel HD Audio analog front panel header to insure that the jack detection and dynamic re-tasking capability is preserved. Passive AC’97 analog front panel dongles (ones which leave the 5V Analog pin-7 line unconnected on the dongle) may be used with the Intel HD Audio analog front panel header. But note that the front panel jack detection and re-tasking functionality will be lost as the AC’97 jacks cannot support connection to the SENSE line. In addition, software must be aware that an AC’97 dongle is being used with an Intel HD Audio analog header since the software might need to dedicate codec ports that are connected to the header to meet the product’s intended functionality.

The different signal assignments can cause trouble when AC'97 front-panel dongles are used with HDA motherboards and vice versa. An AC'97 dongle returns audio on pins 6 and 10 rather than a digital plug sensing signals. Consequently, a loud audio passage may make the HDA motherboard with AC'97 dongle believe that headphones and microphones are being plugged and unplugged hundreds of times per second. An AC'97 motherboard with an HDA dongle will route the AC'97 5 V audio supply (pin 7; silence) to the speakers instead of the desired left and right audio signals.

To avoid this, some motherboards allow choosing between HDA and AC'97 front panels in the BIOS. Even though the actual audio hardware is HD Audio, it will allow using the AC'97 front panel that way. Likewise, some modern enclosures have both an 'AC'97' and an 'HDA' plug at the end of the front-panel audio cable.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Smith, Tony (16 April 2004). 'Intel completes hi-def audio spec'. The Register. Situation Publishing Limited. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
2. ^'High Definition Audio Specification 1.0a'(PDF). Intel Corporation. 2010. p. 17.
3. ^Microsoft Knowledge Base Article 888111
4. ^OpenSolaris Boomer Project Page, 2009
5. ^snd_hda. Man.freebsd.org (2012-01-25). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
6. ^Manual Pages: azalia. OpenBSD.org (2012-03-15). Retrieved on 2018-02-03.
7. ^AMD SB600 Product Information Page, 2009
8. ^ALC888 Product Page, 2009
9. ^Conexant - PC HD-AudioArchived 2013-08-19 at the Wayback Machine
10. ^ ^abIntel Corporation (February 2005), Front Panel I/O Connectivity Design Guide(PDF), Version 1.3, pp. 19–25, archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-05-11, retrieved 2011-11-04
11. ^Intel Corporation 2005, p. 20
12. ^Intel Corporation 2005, p. 25
13. ^Intel Corporation 2005, p. 21
14. ^Intel Corporation 2005, p. 24
15. ^Intel Corporation 2005, p. 19

External links[edit]

• High Definition Audio Specification 1.0a (June 17, 2010)